The nuclear weapon project thereafter maintained its kriegswichtig (war importance) designation, and funding continued from the military, but it was then split into the areas of uranium and heavy water production, uranium isotope separation, and the Uranmaschine (uranium machine, i.e., nuclear reactor). 91 in Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, pp. After this, informal work began at the Georg-August University of Göttingen by Joos, Hanle, and their colleague Reinhold Mannkopff; the group of physicists was known informally as the first Uranverein (Uranium Club) and formally as Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Kernphysik. The German experiment In 1939, German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann made a landmark discovery. The German invasion in June 1941 temporarily halted the nuclear program and caused the rearrangement of research priorities to the disadvantage of atomic bombs, at least for the time being. [50] Otto Robert Frisch, who with Rudolf Peierls first calculated the critical mass of U-235 needed for an explosive, was also a Jewish refugee. This second Uranverein was formed on 1 September 1939, the day World War II began, and had its first meeting on 16 September 1939. The director of the Reich military research asserted, “The work… is making demands which can be justified in the current recruiting and raw materials crisis only if there is a certainty of getting some benefit from it in the near future” (Rhodes 402). 1 on p. 207. ")[53], Overall, the settlement of the Heisenberg affair was a victory for academic standards and professionalism. Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, 363–364 and Appendix F; see the entries for Diebner and Döpel. Further, German science and industry appeared to be capable of the kind of massive development program that building an atomic bomb would require. (Neumann was assistant to. The Allies and Norwegians had sabotaged Norwegian heavy water production and destroyed stocks of heavy water by 1943. Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996; see the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entries for the HWA and the RFR in Appendix B. Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, Appendix F; see the entries for Esau and Gerlach. On 7 April, the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service was enacted; this law, and its subsequent related ordinances, politicized the education system in Germany. Document No. [81] These were all shipped to the US for study and utilization in the US atomic program. This typically meant getting to these resources first, which to some extent put the Soviets at a disadvantage in some geographic locations easily reached by the Western Allies, even if the area was destined to be in the Soviet zone of occupation by the Potsdam Conference. [65] While some with ability joined such organizations out of tactical career considerations, others with ability and adherence to historical academic standards joined these organizations to moderate their activities. The reports were classified Top Secret, they had very limited distribution, and the authors were not allowed to keep copies. In his lecture it was clear he was talking to people who were quite ignorant… Apparently the other people didn’t know very much about fission…” (Powers 451). The Atomic Bomb That Never Was: Germany s Atomic Bomb Project. The scientists knew this to be the case because they were refugees from Germany, a large number of them, and they had studied under the Germans before the war broke out.” Manhattan Project physicist Leona Marshall Libby also recalled, “I think everyone was terrified that we were wrong, and the Germans were ahead of us.… Germany led the civilized world of physics in every aspect, at the time war set in, when Hitler lowered the boom. Join Today as an Atomic History Patron Member, Alex Wellerstein "Historical thoughts on Michael Frayn’s Copenhagen". Hentschel and Hentschel, 1966, Appendix F; see the entry for Carl Ramsauer. This 'fission' of an atom changed the world forever. [106][107][108][109] Mutual distrust existed between the German government and some scientists. Hitler 'tested small atom bomb'. By 1944, however, the evidence was clear: the Germans had not come close to developing a bomb and had only advanced to preliminary research. The Manhattan Project consumed some US$2 billion (1945) in government funds, and employed at its peak some 120,000 people, mostly in the sectors of construction and operations. As one German scientist exclaimed, it must have taken "factories large as the United States to make that much uranium-235!". However, supporters of Deutsche Physik and elements in the REM had their own list of candidates and the battle commenced, dragging on for over four years. Operations directed specifically towards German nuclear fission were Operation Alsos and Operation Epsilon, the latter being done in collaboration with the British. The conflict involved one of the prominent Uranverein participants, Werner Heisenberg. 2, in Moscow, and included Yulij Borisovich Khariton, Isaak Konstantinovich Kikoin, and Lev Andreevich Artsimovich. Many of the world’s top nuclear physicists were German or Austrian, or worked closely with German or Austrian colleagues. He was director of the Physics Department II at the Frederick William University (later, University of Berlin), which was commissioned and funded by the Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH, Army High Command) to conduct physics research projects. Walker, 1993, 268–274 and Reference No. Two days earlier, Joos and Hanle had approached the REM, leading to the First Uranverein. [69] While the technical outcome may have been thin, it was a political victory against deutsche Physik. Also incarcerated was Max von Laue, although he had nothing to do with the nuclear weapon project. [84][85], The Oranienburg plant provided the uranium sheets and cubes for the Uranmaschine experiments conducted at the KWIP and the Versuchsstelle (testing station) of the Heereswaffenamt (Army Ordnance Office) in Gottow. [33] Development did continue with a "uranium motor" for the navy and development of a German cyclotron. The Munich Faculty was firmly behind these candidates, with Heisenberg as their first choice. Not only was heavy water a less effective moderator than graphite, it made the German program reliant on the Norwegian plant. [45] Eight students, assistants, and colleagues of the Göttingen theoretical physicist Max Born left Europe after Hitler came to power and eventually found work on the Manhattan Project, thus helping the United States, Britain and Canada to develop the atomic bomb; they were Enrico Fermi,[49] James Franck, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Robert Oppenheimer (who was American, but had studied under Born), Edward Teller, Victor Weisskopf, Eugene Wigner, and John von Neumann. Since the plant was to be in the future Soviet zone of occupation and the Red Army's troops would get there before the Western Allies, General Leslie Groves, commander of the Manhattan Project, recommended to General George Marshall that the plant be destroyed by aerial bombardment, in order to deny its uranium production equipment to the Soviets. 40 on p. 262. [25], On 4 June 1942, a conference regarding the project, initiated by Albert Speer as head of the "Reich Ministry for Armament and Ammunition" (RMBM: Reichsministerium für Bewaffnung und Munition; after late 1943 the Reich Ministry for Armament and War Production), decided on its continuation merely for the aim of energy production. It seems to have been a mistake in the course of developing these various components of the technology.” Historians generally agree that the problems with the German project stemmed from serious miscalculations and a lack of priority. [93][94][95][96], At the close of World War II, the Soviet Union had special search teams operating in Austria and Germany, especially in Berlin, to identify and obtain equipment, material, intellectual property, and personnel useful to the Soviet atomic bomb project. Another problem was coordination among different departments. Clearly, the German scientists did not believe they could extract sufficient U-235 to make a bomb and so did not urge Speer to commit German industry … [116][117] At the end of July of the same year, the group around Fermi also succeeded in the neutron increase within a reactor-like arrangement. Even with all four of these conditions in place the Manhattan Project succeeded only after the war in Europe had been brought to a conclusion. Attachment III: The Crucial Importance of Theoretical Physics and Particularly Modern Theoretical Physics. So the U.S. atomic bomb … Both sides wanted to use scientists from Nazi Germany to further their own new technologies. In addition to exploitation, denial of these technologies, their personnel, and related materials to rival allies was a driving force of their efforts. The work was hampered by war shortages and ultimately ended by the war.[40]. [34], Over time, the HWA and then the RFR controlled the German nuclear weapon project. The reports were confiscated under the Allied Operation Alsos and sent to the United States Atomic Energy Commission for evaluation. The meeting was organized by Kurt Diebner, advisor to the HWA, and held in Berlin. [120] By comparison, the Uranverein was budgeted a mere 8 million reichsmarks, equivalent to about US$2 million (1945) — a factor of 1,000 less. Document No. The United States government remained equally afraid. Heisenberg recalled in his memoir, “The government decided that work on the reactor project must be continued, but only on a modest scale. Significant work on the German project was halted in June of 1942. Unconditional government support from a certain point in time. However, this was realized by the Fermi group in December 1942, so that the German advantage was definitively lost, even with respect to research on energy production. During this time, Heisenberg came under vicious attack by the supporters of Deutsche Physik. [103] On 27 April 1945, Thiessen arrived at von Ardenne's institute in an armored vehicle with a major of the Soviet Army, who was also a leading Soviet chemist, and they issued Ardenne a protective letter (Schutzbrief). by. Transuranic elements and measurement of nuclear constants. For the Manhattan Project, the second condition was met on 9 October 1941 or shortly thereafter. Also see footnote No. At the close of the war, physicists born between 1915 and 1925 were almost nonexistent. On 24 April 1939, along with his teaching assistant Wilhelm Groth, Harteck made contact with the Reichskriegsministerium (RKM, Reich Ministry of War) to alert them to the potential of military applications of nuclear chain reactions. See also the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entry for the HWA in Appendix B. Mehra and Rechenberg, Volume 6, Part 2, 2001, 1010–1011. Wigner was afraid that the German nuclear weapon project would develop an atomic bomb first. [45] Out of 26 German nuclear physicists cited in the literature before 1933, 50% emigrated. Following the German defeat, the Allies detained ten German scientists, at Farm Hall, a bugged house in Godmanchester, England, from July 3, 1945 to January 3, 1946. It was a very frightening time.”. Eugene Wigner – Director of Theoretical Studies, John von Neumann – LASL consultant on implosion mechanism for the plutonium bomb. Image credit: Wikimedia Commons via DOE. In addition to exploitation, denial of these technologies, their personnel, and related materials to rival allies was a driving force of their efforts. The group's work was discontinued in August 1939, when the three were called to military training.[8][9][10][11]. Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, Appendix F; see entry for Ardenne. For example, his research on nuclear physics and high-frequency technology was financed by the Reichspostministerium (RPM, Reich Postal Ministry), headed by Wilhelm Ohnesorge. An immediate consequence upon passage of the law was that it produced both quantitative and qualitative losses to the physics community. After later hearing a 1942 lecture given by Heisenberg to scientists and government officials, Hans Bethe remarked, “My first reaction is that Heisenberg knew a lot more than I have always thought – the fact he reached many of these conclusions in one evening is most remarkable. Heisenberg fought back with an editorial and a letter to Himmler, in an attempt to get a resolution to this matter and regain his honour. The exploitation teams were under the Soviet Alsos and they were headed by Lavrentij Beria's deputy, Colonel General A. P. Zavenyagin. In 1933, Planck, as president of the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft (Kaiser Wilhelm Society), met with Adolf Hitler. Cited in Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, p. 279, but omitted from the anthology. A second effort began under the administrative purview of the Wehrmacht's Heereswaffenamt on 1 September 1939, the day of the invasion of Poland. A substantial number eventually came to the United States to work on the Manhattan Project. At one point, Heisenberg's mother visited Himmler's mother to help bring a resolution to the affair. The only section of the institute which remained in Berlin was the low-temperature physics section, headed by Ludwig Bewilogua [de], who was in charge of the exponential uranium pile.[79][80]. Attachment V: Excerpt from an attachment to. [73][74][75][76][77], The best known US denial and exploitation effort was Operation Paperclip, a broad dragnet that encompassed a wide range of advanced fields, including jet and rocket propulsion, nuclear physics, and other developments with military applications such as infrared technology. It went through several phases of work, but in the words of a historian, it was ultimately "frozen at the laboratory level" with the "modest goal" to "build a nuclear reactor which could sustain a nuclear fission chain reaction for a significant amount of time and to achieve the complete separation of at least tiny amount of the uranium isotopes." None of the other German scientists interned in Farm Hall ever mentioned anything about Germany almost building an atomic bomb during the war. [19], When it was apparent that the nuclear weapon project would not make a decisive contribution to ending the war in the near term, control of the KWIP was returned in January 1942 to its umbrella organization, the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft (KWG, Kaiser Wilhelm Society, after World War II the Max-Planck Gesellschaft). This was the case of Finkelnburg. Paul Peter Ewald, a member of the Uranverein, had proposed an electromagnetic isotope separator, which was thought applicable to 235U production and enrichment. When the American Alsos Mission evacuated Hechingen and Haigerloch, near the end of World War II, French armed forces occupied Hechingen. Heisenberg's disbelief after hearing that the United States had dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima confirmed in the minds of the Allies that the German effort was never close. Infuriated by Heisenberg, who he thought “is not being honest, or he is being used by the Nazi government,” Bohr refused to speak with him more and eventually turned the sketch over to Manhattan Project scientists, who identified it as the outline of a reactor (Powers 126). Richard Rhodes recalled, “There was at least one speculation that one of the German scientists deliberately falsified the measurements in graphite, hoping to stop a German bomb program. Two factors which had deleterious effects on the nuclear weapon project were the politicization of the education system under National Socialism and the rise of the Deutsche Physik movement, which was anti-Semitic and had a bias against theoretical physics, especially quantum mechanics.[44]. Attachment II: Publications Against Modern Theoretical Physics. The play explores three scenarios where Heisenberg discusses his dilemma with Bohr, but leaves the matter for audiences to decide what Heisenberg actually believed and intended to do. The two women knew each other as a result of Heisenberg's maternal grandfather and Himmler's father being rectors and members of a Bavarian hiking club. Politicization of the German academia under the Nazi regime had driven many physicists, engineers, and mathematicians out of Germany as early as 1933. The United States was in a race to develop an atomic bomb believing whoever had the bomb first would win the war. Unfortunately for the Soviets, the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik (KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics) had mostly been moved in 1943 and 1944 to Hechingen and its neighboring town of Haigerloch, on the edge of the Black Forest, which eventually became the French occupation zone. The German government ultimately decided that with the uncertainty surrounding the bomb project, it was not worth the gamble. HWA control of the project was subsequently passed to the RFR in July 1942. In 1935, the Munich Faculty drew up a candidate list to replace Sommerfeld as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics and head of the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Munich. To limit casualties and loss of equipment, many of these facilities were dispersed to other locations in the later years of the war. [46] Qualitatively, 11 physicists and four chemists who had won or would win the Nobel Prize emigrated from Germany shortly after Hitler came to power, most of them in 1933. A popular theory for the failure of the German project is that Heisenberg deliberately aborted it so that Hitler would not have the atomic bomb. Finkelnburg invited five representatives to make arguments for theoretical physics and academic decisions based on ability, rather than politics: Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. The Farm Hall transcripts also show the ignorance of Walther Gerlach, the scientific liaison to the German government, an important link in coordinating the project. Recently declassified file APO 696 from the National Archives in Washington is a detailed survey of how far Third Reich scientists got in the development of an atomic bomb - … General Groves remembered, “Unless and until we had positive knowledge to the contrary, we had to assume that the most competent German scientists and engineers were working on an atomic program with the full support of their government and with the full capacity of German industry at their disposal. Subsequently, the number of scientists working on applied nuclear fission began to diminish, with many applying their talents to more pressing war-time demands. In a 1942 meeting with Albert Speer, the Minister of Armaments and War Production, Heisenberg made a reference to the amount of U-235 necessary and caused a small sensation when he used the word “bomb” – many of the scientists and officials present were not aware that this was actually possible. In the editorial, Himmler called Heisenberg a "White Jew" who should be made to "disappear. [29][30][31][32], Speer states that the project to develop the atom bomb was scuttled in the autumn of 1942. They did not suffer from a shortage of capable scientists. Nevertheless, German politicians have continued to assert that their eventual goal is the "withdrawal of tactical nuclear weapons stationed in Germany and Europe. Document 92 in Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, pp. Diebner, throughout the life of the nuclear weapon project, had more control over nuclear fission research than did Walther Bothe, Klaus Clusius, Otto Hahn, Paul Harteck, or Werner Heisenberg. On 15 March 1945, 612 B-17 Flying Fortress bombers of the Eighth Air Force dropped 1,506 tons of high-explosive and 178 tons of incendiary bombs on the plant. For nuclear power decommissioning in modern Germany, see, Comparison of the Manhattan Project and the, Due to the surrender of Germany. Britain and the United States were often the recipients of the talent which left Germany. [4] Meitner and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch confirmed Hahn's conclusion of a bursting and correctly interpreted the results as "nuclear fission" – a term coined by Frisch. Nine of the prominent German scientists who published reports in Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte as members of the Uranverein[82] were picked up by Operation Alsos and incarcerated in England under Operation Epsilon: Erich Bagge, Kurt Diebner, Walther Gerlach, Otto Hahn, Paul Harteck, Werner Heisenberg, Horst Korsching, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, and Karl Wirtz. Albert Einstein wrotein his famous August 2, 1939 letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, “I understand that the son of the German Under-Secretary of State, von Weizsäcker, is attached to the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute in Berlin where some of the American work on uranium is now being repeated.” He was among the lead scientists of the Uranverein or “Uranium Club” working on the German atomic bomb project an… As Chief of Foreign Intelligence in the Manhattan Project, Robert Furman coordinated and was a part of the Alsos Mission, conducting epsionage missions across Europe to interrogate Italian and German scientists, locate uranium, and determine how far the Nazis had proceeded with their atomic bomb project. No orders were given to build atomic bombs” (Powers x). By the end of the war, the number recalled had reached 15,000. Riehl visited the site with the Soviets and said that the facility was mostly destroyed. At the end of the war, the Allied powers competed to obtain surviving components of the nuclear industry (personnel, facilities, and materiel), as they did with the pioneering V-2 SRBM program. Whereas Enrico Fermi, a scientific Manhattan leader, had a "unique double aptitude for theoretical and experimental work" in the 20th century,[115] the successes at Leipzig until 1942 resulted from the cooperation between the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg and the experimentalist Robert Döpel. Attachment IV: Refuting Allegations that Modern Theoretical Physics is a Product of the Jewish Spirit. Heisenberg did however tell Bohr that the German project was underway, and drew a simple sketch, which Bohr thought to be a bomb. "[52] These verbal attacks were taken seriously, as Jews were subject to physical violence and incarceration at the time. Hentschel and Hentschel, 1996, Appendix F; see the entry for Schumann. [48] The University of Göttingen had 45 dismissals from the staff of 1932–1933, for a loss of 19%. [3] Their article was published on 6 January 1939. 5 on p. 212. Furthermore, Speer was reluctant to bring up the bomb project with Hitler himself unless he could produce clear results. The United States government became aware of the German nuclear program in August 1939, when Albert Einstein wrote to President Roosevelt, warning "that it may become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium by which vast amounts of power and large quantities of new radium-like elements would be generated." Germany had a significant head start over the Manhattan Project as well as some of the best scientists, a strong industrial base, sufficient materials, and the interest of its military officers. The Germans never achieved a successful chain reaction, had no method of enriching uranium, and never seriously considered plutonium as a viable substitute. [38][39] Taking Ewald's suggestion he began building a prototype for the RPM. Despite this, nuclear weapons would eventually be deployed in both West Germany and East Germany by the United States and the Soviet Union respectively. Attachment I: American Physics Outdoes German Physics. This work unravels the myths and controversies surrounding Hitler's atomic bomb project. And here there is indeed massive uncertainty and disputation. Zimmer's path to work on the Soviet atomic bomb project was through a prisoner of war camp in Krasnogorsk, as was that of his colleagues Hans-Joachim Born and Alexander Catsch from the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Hirnforschung (KWIH, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Brain Research, today the Max-Planck-Institut für Hirnforschung), who worked there for N. V. Timofeev-Resovskij, director of the Abteilung für Experimentelle Genetik (Department of Experimental Genetics). This was simply not the case with the German project. 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