Ferbam increased the incidence of soft tissue and skeletal abnormalities in rats but not in mice. Application of fludioxonil as seed tuber treatment was shown to reduce the inoculum potential of soil surrounding the progeny tubers by affecting the spread of the pathogen from infected seed tubers (Bains et al., 1999, 2001). Recent studies have suggested that their mode of action is via their effect on lipid peroxidation and the inhibition of transport-associated phosphorylation of glucose.
Common development and reproductive abnormalities include reduction in copulation index (female rats) and BW, retardation in ossification (rat), and increased postimplantation loss (rabbit) (JMPR, 2005). Among these salts, potassium metabisulfite and sodium metabisulfite provided 100% inhibition of dry rot under laboratory conditions (Kolaei et al., 2012). Taylor, Hird, Sykes, and Startin (2004) reported a LC/MS method for the determination of propamocarb residues in wine. Table 47.2. Thus, timing of application is critical and should be made 14 weeks before expected seed germination. Among these fungicides, mancozeb, thiophanate-methyl, metiram, and fludioxonil are registered in Canada as seed treatments (CRAAQ, 2009). Contact/protectant fungicides are the next most diverse group (four fungicides) and control 15 separate fungal diseases.
Rabbits and mice were resistant to oral doses, whereas cleft palate, tail and digital defects, and anal atresia were observed in hamster embryos (Teramoto et al., 1978). Aqueous extracts of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum J. Presl) also provided inhibition of mycelial growth of F. sambucinum and reduced severity of potato dry rot (Mvuemba et al., 2009). Can be applied following germination or to established turf. It has an active ingredient, 1,3-dichloropropene, which is highly volatile and must be applied by authorized operators. Table 47.1 lists the 20 most common turfgrass disease problems in terms of problem intensity. Damage by Hyperodes weevils (annual bluegrass weevil) is commonly found on turf in the northeast United States, whereas fire ant and mole cricket damage is usually associated with the southeastern region. Anglique Bojanowski, Russell J. Tweddell, in Postharvest Biology and Technology, 2013. Thus, the decision to apply these materials must be carefully evaluated and applications monitored judiciously. The reproductive system is generally unaffected by exposure to EBDCs {common metabolite, ethylenethiourea (ETU)}. 9-31D). Pawan K. Gupta, in Veterinary Toxicology (Third Edition), 2018. Registered for use in EU countries[115]. These are recorded by the Meteorological Office, and information can be obtained by farmers by telephone or through the Internet. However, some discrepancies in reported efficacy have arisen such as imazalil reported both effective (Hide and Cayley, 1980, 1985) and ineffective (Carnegie et al., 1998) as a postharvest treatment. Different fungicides tested for control of potato dry rot. The use of salts in postharvest treatments could eventually constitute an interesting alternative to synthetic chemical fungicides as many salts are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and used in food processing industry. These materials have proven highly effective by providing excellent weed control with little or no injury to turf. Other diseases of potatoes are mainly seed-borne and can be controlled by treating seed with fungicides, e.g. Dicarboximides are used in ornamental plant cultivation, in bulb flowers and other flower crops for disinfection against Botrytis spp. Propamocarb is selectively active against Oomycetes. To reduce the risk of spores spreading from the leaves to the tubers, the haulms should be destroyed when about 70% have been killed by blight; this is especially important if heavy rain is expected (Table6.2). 9-31A and 9-31D) that release the chemical 612 inches deep into the soil and the treated area is covered immediately with plastic (Figs. Table 47.1 lists the 15 most common insect pests on turf in terms of problem intensity in the United States (GCSAA, 1998). Preemergence herbicides are effective control agents for several weeks to months on most annual grass weeds. et Link. It is apparent that most turfgrass diseases are the result of fungi growth and thus can be effectively controlled using fungicides. Following application, the preemergence herbicides need to be watered in and the soil should not be disturbed during the target weed seed germination interval. Protective and systemic fungicides have also been applied to the soil (and to the foliage) through irrigation water (fungigation) for the control of soilborne diseases. The disease spreads rapidly in warm, moist conditions which, when they occur, are known as Blight Periods. The application enhances the accumulation of phenols and antifungal stilbenes and flavonoids, resulting in a reduced symptom expression. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to maintain turfgrass in highly managed settings without fungicides. The control of grass weeds is primarily accomplished by the application of preemergence herbicides (e.g., benzamide, ethofumesate, pendimethalin, prodiamine, oxadiazon, bensulide, dithiopyr, and simazine). The carbamic acid class of fungicides includes dithiocarbamates (ferbam, thiram, ziram, propamocarb, etc.) Neither compound is registered for use on golf courses or turfgrass. The powerful features of LC/MS, such as high efficient separation, identification, and quantification of polar analytes, make this technique very attractive to the field of pesticide residue analysis. Carcinogenicity[83]: EPA, Not likely to be carcinogenic to humans.
H.J.S. It readily degrades to phosphoric acid and carbon dioxide in water, soil and plants. Lastly, there are the more systemic penetrant fungicides for control of the oomycete diseases such Pythium blight. GEORGE N. AGRIOS, in Plant Pathology (Fifth Edition), 2005. TBZ+imazalil showed variable efficacy (Carnegie et al., 1998). Table 47.2 lists some of the most widely utilized contact/protectant fungicides on turfgrass, their structures, and the diseases they commonly control. Occasionally, hepatic degeneration, ascites, enteritis, and hydrothorax have been observed (Lorgue et al., 1996). Lastly, there are the more systemic penetrant fungicides for control of the oomycete diseases such Pythium blight. Baohui Jin, Guofang Pang, in Food Research International, 2012. Leach and Nielsen, 1975; Cwalina-Ambroziak and Czajka, 2006, Kawchuk et al., 1994; Holley and Kawchuk, 1996, Mecteau et al., 2002, 2008; Kolaei et al., 2012, Mecteau et al., 2002, 2008; Lobato et al., 2008; Kolaei et al., 2012, Gorris et al., 1994; Hartmans et al., 1995, Gorris et al., 1994; Daferera et al., 2003, Sun et al., 2008; Li et al., 2009b; Olivieri et al., 2009; Yin et al., 2010, Olsen et al., 2003; Tweddell et al., 2003, Brown patch, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, Brown patch, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, Typhula blight, Algae, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, downy mildew, Fusarium blight, Fusarium patch, necrotic ring spot, powdery mildew, Algae, anthracnose, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, Gray leaf spot, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, red thread, rust, Typhula blight, Brown patch, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, Fusarium blight, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, necrotic ring spot, red thread, Typhula blight, Brown patch, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, red thread, Typhula blight, Brown patch, red thread, Typhula blight, yellow patch, Anthracnose, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, Fusarium blight, Fusarium patch, gray leaf spot, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, necrotic ring spot, red thread, rust, smut, summer patch, take-all patch, yellow patch, Anthracnose, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, gray leaf spot, necrotic ring spot, powdery mildew, red thread, rust, smut, summer patch, Typhula blight, Anthracnose, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, Fusarium blight, Fusarium patch, necrotic ring spot, red thread, smut, summer patch, take-all patch, Typhula blight, Anthracnose, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, necrotic ring spot, powdery mildew, red thread, rust, smut, summer patch, Anthracnose, brown patch, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, gray leaf spot, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, necrotic ring spot, powdery mildew, red thread, rust, smut, summer patch, take-all patch, Typhula blight, yellow patch, Anthracnose, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, Fusarium blight, Fusarium patch, powdery mildew, red thread, rust, smut, summer patch, take-all patch, Typhula blight, Anthracnose, brown patch, Fusarium patch, gray leaf spot, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, necrotic ring spot, Pythium blight, red thread, summer patch, take-all patch, Typhula blight, yellow patch, Fire ants, armyworms, cutworms, mole cricket, sod webworm, Fire ants, cicada killer, army worms, billbug, chinch bug, cranefiy, cutworms, white grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, adult Japanese beetle, sod webworm, turfgrass weevil, Chinch bug, white grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, White grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, Cutworms, white grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, White grub Ataenius, white grub Japanese beetle, Cicada killer, armyworms, cutworms, white grub Ataenius, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, adult Japanese beetle, sod webworm, Hyperodes weevil, chinch bug, cutworm, sod webworm, Billbug, white grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, turfgrass weevil, Cutworms, sod webworms, turfgrass Ataenius white grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, Cutworms, mole cricket, sod webworms, turfgrass Atae-nius white grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, Army ants, cutworms, mole cricket, sod webworm, Botton weed, clover (white), dandelion, knotweed, dichondra, mallow, plantain (broadleaf), Clover (white), dandelion, dichondra, knotweed, plantain (broadleaf). In all reports of resistance to TBZ, F. sambucinum had the greater proportion of resistant-strains, from 42 to 100% of tested strains (Hide et al., 1992; Kawchuk et al., 1994; Hanson et al., 1996; Platt, 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012). On histopathology, hepatic, renal and pulmonary congestion is common. The primary postemergence herbicides for grass weed control in turfgrass are the arsenates [e.g., methylarsonic acid (MSMA), disodium methylarsonate (DSMA), and amine methanearsonate (AMA)]. Standard shipping rates and handling fees apply. The following sections on disease, pest, and weed management are condensed largely from the Professional Guide for IPM in Turf (University of Massachusetts-Extension, 1999), 1998 Plant Protection and Fertilizer Usage Report [Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (GCSAA), 1998], and Racke (2000). Structures of each fungicide and the diseases that they control are given in Table 47.2. and some efficacy to reduce dry rot disease in vivo. Structures of each of these insecticides and the pests they control are given in Table 47.3. Several organic and non-organic salts were shown to inhibit mycelial growth and spore germination of F. sambucinum and F. solani var.
Resistance to fludioxonil has been recently reported in F. sambucinum and F. coeruleum in Canada (Peters et al., 2008c) and in F. sambucinum and F. oxysporum in Michigan (Gachango et al., 2011b, 2012).
In addition, high populations of nematodes can coexist with limited damage on turf, making the justification of application difficult. Gupta, in Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, 2011. The threshold levels of nematode populations, which trigger the implementation of control applications, are dependent on various factors (e.g., time of year, distribution, and assay procedure used), show wide regional variations, and are usually based on limited experimental data. Sensitivity varied with species.
Most fungicides have a protectant and systemic action and are effective if sprayed regularly with the leaves being well covered. Volatile chemicals (fumigants) are often used to fumigate the soil before planting for reducing the inoculum of nematodes, fungi, and bacteria. The main features of toxicity include anorexia, diarrhea, and flatulence followed by neurological effects, ataxia, muscular contractions and prostration. Spray tank adjuvants (spreader-stickers and surfactants) have been used to improve plant coverage and surface adherence, which are critical for effective protection. Highly systemic for quick absorption and translocation. 9-31A and 9-31B) to keep the chemical from escaping prematurely. Variable efficacy (+/); effective (+); ineffective (). Home Proplant Fungicide (Propamocarb hydrochloride).
Table 47.1. The principal target organ upon repeated exposure to EBDCs is the thyroid. and Phytophthora spp. Carvone vapors prevented dry rot caused by F. sulphureum but not by F. solani (Gorris et al., 1994; Hartmans et al., 1995). Copyright 2022 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. Insecticides such as acephate, bifenthin, carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, and spinosad are effective treatment for surface-feeding insect pests. Thiram induced cleft palate in one study and developmental toxicity in another study. When heated to decomposition or on contact with acids or acid fumes, it may produce highly toxic chloride fumes; deadly phosgene gas may be formed. Other combinations of fungicides including prochloraz Mn+tolclofos-methyl (Carnegie et al., 1998), chlorothalonil+propamocarb, and cymoxanil+mancozeb (Daami-Remadi et al., 2010) showed variable efficacy. The action is related to membrane function, causing an efflux of cell compounds.
May form explosive materials with phosphorus pentachloride. Locally absorbed fungicides, including chloroneb, iprodione, and vinclozolin, are absorbed into the leaf tissue and remain close to their point of entry. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. These fungicides alter thyroid hormone levels and/or weights. Propamocarb, sold as Banol and Previcur, is effective against Pythium, Phytophthora, downy mildews, some rusts, and others. Fludioxonil alone or in combination with mancozeb as seed tuber treatment was reported effective against dry rot (Wharton et al., 2007). Different studies conducted on 2-imidazolidinethione, a plant metabolite of fungicide maneb, and other related fungicides such as mancozeb, showed different malformations in different species of experimental animals. Radui, Gruji, Vasiljevi, and Lauevi (2009) developed a HPLC/MS/MS method for the analysis of pesticides in fruit juices. Gonzalez et al. Production of an unusual fatty acid was later reported in mycelial cells of Oomycetes. Growers can then respond by an application of fungicides; a wide range is available. Cineole and menthol vapors reduced markedly the rot in tubers inoculated with two strains of F. sambucinum (Vaughn and Spencer, 1994). Among GRAS compounds, plant essential oils have shown in vitro activity against some Fusarium spp. J. Marshall Clark, Michael P. Kenna, in Hayes' Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (Third Edition), 2010. Carbamates are incompatible with reducing agents, strong acids, oxidizing acids, peroxides, and bases.
The loss of efficacy of TBZ, mainly because of the increase in resistant Fusarium isolates, has led to the exploration of alternative chemicals for postharvest control of potato dry rot (Table 3). The developmental toxicity includes malformations and embryofetotoxic effects at maternally toxic dose levels with EBDCs in rats (Table 45.1) (Ollinger et al., 2010). This would indicate possible increase in resistant isolates although factors such as mode of application, concentration of the fungicide, timing of application, initial fungal inoculum prior to fungicide application and other conditions can explain the variable effects of the treatments. Herbicides for Turfgrass Weeds.
Other more broad-spectrum penetrant fungicides are absorbed by plant tissues and move away from the point of entry, generally in an upwards direction. The fungicide controls diseases at concentrations which have little or no effect on growth of the pathogens on artifical media. Forklift delivery from each warehouse location to surrounding areas, UPS, Fed-Ex and/or DHL depending on location. Reject and waste potatoes should be deeply buried and volunteers should be killed off in other crops before they become a source of infection. Guinea pigs and cats did not show any evidence of teratogenic or other developmental toxicity (Khera, 1987). The fungicide is xylem-mobile and can be used as drench, soil incorporation, dip or foliar spray.
The signs of toxicity include hypokinesia, lethargy, hunched posture, body tremors, clonic convulsions, nasal hemorrhages, piloerection, staggering gait, and ataxia. Recovery of propamocarb hydrochloride from wine spiked before dilution was in the range from 91 to 115%.
LC was performed with a mobile-phase gradient and detection was by electrospray mass spectrometry in a positive ionization mode. Cymoxanil is a systemic product with protectant and curative activity against Oomycetes. Such fungicides include PCNB, metalaxyl, triadimefon, ethazol, and propamocarb. Finch, G.P.F.
Granular materials and low-volatility liquid pesticides either are broadcast on the soil and then disked into the soil (Fig. Aluminium tris-O-ethylphosphonate (fosethyl-Al), known as Aliette, is a systemic organic phosphate compound used to control diseases caused by Peronosporales. The presence of plant parasitic nematodes, by themselves, is not sufficient justification for application of nematicides. Proportion of TBZ-resistant isolates varied greatly by species and origin sites. Propamocarb is nonirritating to the eyes or skin. Increases in enzyme activities and phenol and lignin contents associated with induced resistance mechanism were also observed in chitosan and -aminobutyric treated potatoes (Sun et al., 2008; Li et al., 2009b; Olivieri et al., 2009; Yin et al., 2010).
Multi-site mode of action prevents resistance problem. ), peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) and caraway essential oils were highly toxic against F. oxysporum and controlled very well the decay when applied on potato tubers as protective and therapeutic agents (Mahmoud et al., 2008). The malformations have been prevented by coadministration of thyroxine (Emmerling, 1978). With the increase concerns of the impacts of chemical fungicides on human health and the environment as well as resistance development, different chemical compounds have been tested for the control of dry rot. Locally absorbed fungicides, including chloroneb, iprodione, and vinclozolin, are absorbed into the leaf tissue and remain close to their point of entry.
Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), thyme (Thymus capitatus Hoff. Locally absorbed penetrant-type fungicides are represented by three fungicides, which control nine diseases, and the three systemic fungicides control two diseases, respectively. Highly soluble in water. This low in vitro toxicity has been interpreted as an indication that antifungal activity is indirect and host defence reactions are stimulated. Phosphoric acid is considered to be the active and systemic principle through disruption of phospolipid metabolism. Control of nuisance aquatic weeds in lakes and ponds associated with parks and golf courses are also subjected to herbicide treatment. Fungicides for Turfgrass Diseases.
jinhe Leakage out of the mycelium can be inhibited by the addition of sterols. Fungicides for treating seed tubers are also used to control dry rot (Table 3). Upwardly mobile penetrant fungicides include the benzanalides, benzimiazoles, sterol inhibitors (demethylation inhibiting), and strobilurins. 2000-2019 Advanced Turf Solutions, Inc. - All Rights Reserved. Fumigation of tubers with garlic (Allium sativum L.) essential oil decreased the severity of dry rot caused by F. solani (Bng, 2007). fungicide preventive scab downy It can seriously reduce yield by killing the foliage early; during periods of heavy rain the spores of the fungus can be washed into the soil and onto the tubers, so causing them to rot in the ground or during storage. Exposure to ETU at the critical stages of pregnancy produced malformations in rats, predominantly those of the CNS. Mycelial growth is more sensitive to cymoxanil than early growth phases, including the release of zoospores from sporangia and their germination. It induces sensitization in a MagnussonKligman maximization test. A common programme is to use, Hayes' Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (Third Edition), University of Massachusetts-Extension, 1999, Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (GCSAA), 1998, Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (1998), Penetrant fungicides are absorbed by the plant to provide their control. In addition, new growth, which is not covered, is susceptible to fungal attack. The fungicide inhibits nucleic acid and protein synthesis. ), and removal by mowing. They include gangrene, silver scurf, dry rot, skin spot and stem canker (Table6.2). From: Plant Pathology (Fifth Edition), 2005, M. Kilian, U. Steiner, in Encyclopedia of Rose Science, 2003. Broadleaf weeds are controlled predominantly using postemergence herbicides (e.g., Trimec mixtures of 2,4-D, dicamba, mecoprop, dicamba itself, and Confront mixtures of triclopyr plus clopyralid). Control of annual and perennial weeds in nonplaying areas on golf courses and for turfgrass replacement is accomplished using nonselective postemergent herbicides such as glyphosate. Emulsifiable concentrates of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill. imazalil, flutolanil, and pencycuron. (2002) demonstrated the biocidal activity of small peptides against TBZ-resistant F. sambucinum and their synergism with TBZ against TBZ-resistant and sensitive strains. Turf can become infested with annual and perennial grasses (not the planted cultivar) and broadleaf plants that are controlled by the use of various herbicides. bwi Highly volatile chemicals are applied to the soil with tractors dragging devices equipped with chisels (Figs. Fenamiphos is a restricted-use material that is a systemic nematicide effective against ecto- and endoparasitic, free-living, cyst-forming, and root-knot nematodes and is recommended for application with and without soil incorporation.
Odorless to faint aromatic odor. The developmental toxicity included malformations and embryo-fetotoxic effects at maternally toxic dose levels with EBDCs in rats (Ollinger et al., 2001). The mass spectrometry analyses were carried out by using electrospray ionization (ESI) source operating in the positive mode both for single quadrupole and for QIT mass analysers, operating in selected ion monitoring (SIM) and in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) modes, respectively. Bromoethane and rindite, chemicals used for breaking tuber dormancy, were reported to have no significant effect on dry rot development (Coleman and Murphy, 1990). It is necessary to reapply these types of fungicides every 514 days due to their environmental breakdown on the plant surface, removal due to wash-off (rain, dews, etc. These fungicides alter thyroid hormone levels and/or weights. The average recoveries were in the range between 70 and 110% for most of the compounds tested. Ethoprop is a nonsystemic, nonfumigant nematicide, which is also effective against soil-dwelling insects. TBZ was largely used until resistant strains to TBZ appeared in the late 1980s (Langerfeld, 1986; Tivoli et al., 1986b). coeruleum in vitro (Mecteau et al., 2002, 2008; Kolaei et al., 2012). Upwardly mobile penetrant fungicides include the benzanalides, benzimiazoles, sterol inhibitors (demethylation inhibiting), and strobilurins. Log Kow=<1.0. This group includes fosetyl-Al, metalaxyl, and, Multi-residue detection of pesticides in juice and fruit wine: A review of extraction and detection methods, reported a LC/MS method for the determination of, Economoul, Botitsi, Antoniou, and Tsipi (2009), Sagratini, Maes, Giardin, Damiani, and Pic (2007), Radui, Gruji, Vasiljevi, and Lauevi (2009), Hide et al., 1992; Kawchuk et al., 1994; Hanson et al., 1996; Platt, 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012, Hanson et al., 1996; Satyaprasad et al., 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012. With repeated ingestion, there is a possibility of cutaneous effects, alopecia and a risk of antithyroid effects, especially with maneb.
Thiophanate-methyl (a benzimidazole fungicide) seed tuber piece treatment is used in Canada to control the disease. Certainly for most golf courses and sports facilities, the application of pesticides is the accepted and required chemical control paradigm. Metiram (Leach and Nielsen, 1975), mancozeb alone (Leach and Nielsen, 1975; Cwalina-Ambroziak and Czajka, 2006) or in combination with thiophanate-methyl or flutolanil (Wharton et al., 2007) were also reported effective. Proplantfungicide prevents and cures many Pythium diseases, including damping-off, cottony blight, grease spot and root rot. The carbamic acid class of fungicides includes dithiocarbamates (ferbam, thiram, ziram, Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, Sittig's Handbook of Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals (Second Edition), Lockhart & Wisemans Crop Husbandry Including Grassland (Ninth Edition), conditions which, when they occur, are known as Blight Periods. They represent a group of highly active and selective fungicides. In some cases, foliar diseases (e.g., downy mildews and rusts) can be controlled by incorporating the fungicide (e.g., metalaxyl, triadimenol) into the fertilizer and applying them together before planting. The compounds inhibit spore germination, but less strongly than mycelia development. The dicarboximides are classed among the contact fungicides which are generally applied prophylactically. Of the major used fungicides on turf, the upwardly mobile penetrant types are the most chemically diverse (eight fungicides) and control the most fungal diseases (17 fungal diseases). P.K. Moreover clove (Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill & Perry) and palmarose (Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) In general, other species of Fusarium, such as F. solani, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. equiseti, F. sporotrichioides, F. acuminatum, F. avenaceum, were more sensitive to TBZ and very few isolates showed resistance (Hanson et al., 1996; Satyaprasad et al., 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012).
Common development and reproductive abnormalities include reduction in copulation index (female rats) and BW, retardation in ossification (rat), and increased postimplantation loss (rabbit) (JMPR, 2005). Among these salts, potassium metabisulfite and sodium metabisulfite provided 100% inhibition of dry rot under laboratory conditions (Kolaei et al., 2012). Taylor, Hird, Sykes, and Startin (2004) reported a LC/MS method for the determination of propamocarb residues in wine. Table 47.2. Thus, timing of application is critical and should be made 14 weeks before expected seed germination. Among these fungicides, mancozeb, thiophanate-methyl, metiram, and fludioxonil are registered in Canada as seed treatments (CRAAQ, 2009). Contact/protectant fungicides are the next most diverse group (four fungicides) and control 15 separate fungal diseases. Rabbits and mice were resistant to oral doses, whereas cleft palate, tail and digital defects, and anal atresia were observed in hamster embryos (Teramoto et al., 1978). Aqueous extracts of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum J. Presl) also provided inhibition of mycelial growth of F. sambucinum and reduced severity of potato dry rot (Mvuemba et al., 2009). Can be applied following germination or to established turf. It has an active ingredient, 1,3-dichloropropene, which is highly volatile and must be applied by authorized operators. Table 47.1 lists the 20 most common turfgrass disease problems in terms of problem intensity. Damage by Hyperodes weevils (annual bluegrass weevil) is commonly found on turf in the northeast United States, whereas fire ant and mole cricket damage is usually associated with the southeastern region. Anglique Bojanowski, Russell J. Tweddell, in Postharvest Biology and Technology, 2013. Thus, the decision to apply these materials must be carefully evaluated and applications monitored judiciously. The reproductive system is generally unaffected by exposure to EBDCs {common metabolite, ethylenethiourea (ETU)}. 9-31D). Pawan K. Gupta, in Veterinary Toxicology (Third Edition), 2018. Registered for use in EU countries[115]. These are recorded by the Meteorological Office, and information can be obtained by farmers by telephone or through the Internet. However, some discrepancies in reported efficacy have arisen such as imazalil reported both effective (Hide and Cayley, 1980, 1985) and ineffective (Carnegie et al., 1998) as a postharvest treatment. Different fungicides tested for control of potato dry rot. The use of salts in postharvest treatments could eventually constitute an interesting alternative to synthetic chemical fungicides as many salts are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and used in food processing industry. These materials have proven highly effective by providing excellent weed control with little or no injury to turf. Other diseases of potatoes are mainly seed-borne and can be controlled by treating seed with fungicides, e.g. Dicarboximides are used in ornamental plant cultivation, in bulb flowers and other flower crops for disinfection against Botrytis spp. Propamocarb is selectively active against Oomycetes. To reduce the risk of spores spreading from the leaves to the tubers, the haulms should be destroyed when about 70% have been killed by blight; this is especially important if heavy rain is expected (Table6.2). 9-31A and 9-31D) that release the chemical 612 inches deep into the soil and the treated area is covered immediately with plastic (Figs. Table 47.1 lists the 15 most common insect pests on turf in terms of problem intensity in the United States (GCSAA, 1998). Preemergence herbicides are effective control agents for several weeks to months on most annual grass weeds. et Link. It is apparent that most turfgrass diseases are the result of fungi growth and thus can be effectively controlled using fungicides. Following application, the preemergence herbicides need to be watered in and the soil should not be disturbed during the target weed seed germination interval. Protective and systemic fungicides have also been applied to the soil (and to the foliage) through irrigation water (fungigation) for the control of soilborne diseases. The disease spreads rapidly in warm, moist conditions which, when they occur, are known as Blight Periods. The application enhances the accumulation of phenols and antifungal stilbenes and flavonoids, resulting in a reduced symptom expression. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to maintain turfgrass in highly managed settings without fungicides. The control of grass weeds is primarily accomplished by the application of preemergence herbicides (e.g., benzamide, ethofumesate, pendimethalin, prodiamine, oxadiazon, bensulide, dithiopyr, and simazine). The carbamic acid class of fungicides includes dithiocarbamates (ferbam, thiram, ziram, propamocarb, etc.) Neither compound is registered for use on golf courses or turfgrass. The powerful features of LC/MS, such as high efficient separation, identification, and quantification of polar analytes, make this technique very attractive to the field of pesticide residue analysis. Carcinogenicity[83]: EPA, Not likely to be carcinogenic to humans.
H.J.S. It readily degrades to phosphoric acid and carbon dioxide in water, soil and plants. Lastly, there are the more systemic penetrant fungicides for control of the oomycete diseases such Pythium blight. GEORGE N. AGRIOS, in Plant Pathology (Fifth Edition), 2005. TBZ+imazalil showed variable efficacy (Carnegie et al., 1998). Table 47.2 lists some of the most widely utilized contact/protectant fungicides on turfgrass, their structures, and the diseases they commonly control. Occasionally, hepatic degeneration, ascites, enteritis, and hydrothorax have been observed (Lorgue et al., 1996). Lastly, there are the more systemic penetrant fungicides for control of the oomycete diseases such Pythium blight. Baohui Jin, Guofang Pang, in Food Research International, 2012. Leach and Nielsen, 1975; Cwalina-Ambroziak and Czajka, 2006, Kawchuk et al., 1994; Holley and Kawchuk, 1996, Mecteau et al., 2002, 2008; Kolaei et al., 2012, Mecteau et al., 2002, 2008; Lobato et al., 2008; Kolaei et al., 2012, Gorris et al., 1994; Hartmans et al., 1995, Gorris et al., 1994; Daferera et al., 2003, Sun et al., 2008; Li et al., 2009b; Olivieri et al., 2009; Yin et al., 2010, Olsen et al., 2003; Tweddell et al., 2003, Brown patch, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, Brown patch, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, Typhula blight, Algae, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, downy mildew, Fusarium blight, Fusarium patch, necrotic ring spot, powdery mildew, Algae, anthracnose, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, Gray leaf spot, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, red thread, rust, Typhula blight, Brown patch, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, Fusarium blight, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, necrotic ring spot, red thread, Typhula blight, Brown patch, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, red thread, Typhula blight, Brown patch, red thread, Typhula blight, yellow patch, Anthracnose, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, Fusarium blight, Fusarium patch, gray leaf spot, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, necrotic ring spot, red thread, rust, smut, summer patch, take-all patch, yellow patch, Anthracnose, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, gray leaf spot, necrotic ring spot, powdery mildew, red thread, rust, smut, summer patch, Typhula blight, Anthracnose, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, Fusarium blight, Fusarium patch, necrotic ring spot, red thread, smut, summer patch, take-all patch, Typhula blight, Anthracnose, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, necrotic ring spot, powdery mildew, red thread, rust, smut, summer patch, Anthracnose, brown patch, dollar spot, Fusarium patch, gray leaf spot, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, necrotic ring spot, powdery mildew, red thread, rust, smut, summer patch, take-all patch, Typhula blight, yellow patch, Anthracnose, brown patch, copper spot, dollar spot, Fusarium blight, Fusarium patch, powdery mildew, red thread, rust, smut, summer patch, take-all patch, Typhula blight, Anthracnose, brown patch, Fusarium patch, gray leaf spot, bipolaris, Drechslera leaf spot, necrotic ring spot, Pythium blight, red thread, summer patch, take-all patch, Typhula blight, yellow patch, Fire ants, armyworms, cutworms, mole cricket, sod webworm, Fire ants, cicada killer, army worms, billbug, chinch bug, cranefiy, cutworms, white grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, adult Japanese beetle, sod webworm, turfgrass weevil, Chinch bug, white grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, White grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, Cutworms, white grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, White grub Ataenius, white grub Japanese beetle, Cicada killer, armyworms, cutworms, white grub Ataenius, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, adult Japanese beetle, sod webworm, Hyperodes weevil, chinch bug, cutworm, sod webworm, Billbug, white grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, turfgrass weevil, Cutworms, sod webworms, turfgrass Ataenius white grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, Cutworms, mole cricket, sod webworms, turfgrass Atae-nius white grub masked chafer, white grub Ataenius, white grub European chafer, white grub Japanese beetle, white grub June beetle, Army ants, cutworms, mole cricket, sod webworm, Botton weed, clover (white), dandelion, knotweed, dichondra, mallow, plantain (broadleaf), Clover (white), dandelion, dichondra, knotweed, plantain (broadleaf). In all reports of resistance to TBZ, F. sambucinum had the greater proportion of resistant-strains, from 42 to 100% of tested strains (Hide et al., 1992; Kawchuk et al., 1994; Hanson et al., 1996; Platt, 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012). On histopathology, hepatic, renal and pulmonary congestion is common. The primary postemergence herbicides for grass weed control in turfgrass are the arsenates [e.g., methylarsonic acid (MSMA), disodium methylarsonate (DSMA), and amine methanearsonate (AMA)]. Standard shipping rates and handling fees apply. The following sections on disease, pest, and weed management are condensed largely from the Professional Guide for IPM in Turf (University of Massachusetts-Extension, 1999), 1998 Plant Protection and Fertilizer Usage Report [Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (GCSAA), 1998], and Racke (2000). Structures of each fungicide and the diseases that they control are given in Table 47.2. and some efficacy to reduce dry rot disease in vivo. Structures of each of these insecticides and the pests they control are given in Table 47.3. Several organic and non-organic salts were shown to inhibit mycelial growth and spore germination of F. sambucinum and F. solani var.
Resistance to fludioxonil has been recently reported in F. sambucinum and F. coeruleum in Canada (Peters et al., 2008c) and in F. sambucinum and F. oxysporum in Michigan (Gachango et al., 2011b, 2012).
In addition, high populations of nematodes can coexist with limited damage on turf, making the justification of application difficult. Gupta, in Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, 2011. The threshold levels of nematode populations, which trigger the implementation of control applications, are dependent on various factors (e.g., time of year, distribution, and assay procedure used), show wide regional variations, and are usually based on limited experimental data. Sensitivity varied with species.
Most fungicides have a protectant and systemic action and are effective if sprayed regularly with the leaves being well covered. Volatile chemicals (fumigants) are often used to fumigate the soil before planting for reducing the inoculum of nematodes, fungi, and bacteria. The main features of toxicity include anorexia, diarrhea, and flatulence followed by neurological effects, ataxia, muscular contractions and prostration. Spray tank adjuvants (spreader-stickers and surfactants) have been used to improve plant coverage and surface adherence, which are critical for effective protection. Highly systemic for quick absorption and translocation. 9-31A and 9-31B) to keep the chemical from escaping prematurely. Variable efficacy (+/); effective (+); ineffective (). Home Proplant Fungicide (Propamocarb hydrochloride).
Table 47.1. The principal target organ upon repeated exposure to EBDCs is the thyroid. and Phytophthora spp. Carvone vapors prevented dry rot caused by F. sulphureum but not by F. solani (Gorris et al., 1994; Hartmans et al., 1995). Copyright 2022 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. Insecticides such as acephate, bifenthin, carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, and spinosad are effective treatment for surface-feeding insect pests. Thiram induced cleft palate in one study and developmental toxicity in another study. When heated to decomposition or on contact with acids or acid fumes, it may produce highly toxic chloride fumes; deadly phosgene gas may be formed. Other combinations of fungicides including prochloraz Mn+tolclofos-methyl (Carnegie et al., 1998), chlorothalonil+propamocarb, and cymoxanil+mancozeb (Daami-Remadi et al., 2010) showed variable efficacy. The action is related to membrane function, causing an efflux of cell compounds.
May form explosive materials with phosphorus pentachloride. Locally absorbed fungicides, including chloroneb, iprodione, and vinclozolin, are absorbed into the leaf tissue and remain close to their point of entry. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. These fungicides alter thyroid hormone levels and/or weights. Propamocarb, sold as Banol and Previcur, is effective against Pythium, Phytophthora, downy mildews, some rusts, and others. Fludioxonil alone or in combination with mancozeb as seed tuber treatment was reported effective against dry rot (Wharton et al., 2007). Different studies conducted on 2-imidazolidinethione, a plant metabolite of fungicide maneb, and other related fungicides such as mancozeb, showed different malformations in different species of experimental animals. Radui, Gruji, Vasiljevi, and Lauevi (2009) developed a HPLC/MS/MS method for the analysis of pesticides in fruit juices. Gonzalez et al. Production of an unusual fatty acid was later reported in mycelial cells of Oomycetes. Growers can then respond by an application of fungicides; a wide range is available. Cineole and menthol vapors reduced markedly the rot in tubers inoculated with two strains of F. sambucinum (Vaughn and Spencer, 1994). Among GRAS compounds, plant essential oils have shown in vitro activity against some Fusarium spp. J. Marshall Clark, Michael P. Kenna, in Hayes' Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (Third Edition), 2010. Carbamates are incompatible with reducing agents, strong acids, oxidizing acids, peroxides, and bases.
The loss of efficacy of TBZ, mainly because of the increase in resistant Fusarium isolates, has led to the exploration of alternative chemicals for postharvest control of potato dry rot (Table 3). The developmental toxicity includes malformations and embryofetotoxic effects at maternally toxic dose levels with EBDCs in rats (Table 45.1) (Ollinger et al., 2010). This would indicate possible increase in resistant isolates although factors such as mode of application, concentration of the fungicide, timing of application, initial fungal inoculum prior to fungicide application and other conditions can explain the variable effects of the treatments. Herbicides for Turfgrass Weeds.
Other more broad-spectrum penetrant fungicides are absorbed by plant tissues and move away from the point of entry, generally in an upwards direction. The fungicide controls diseases at concentrations which have little or no effect on growth of the pathogens on artifical media. Forklift delivery from each warehouse location to surrounding areas, UPS, Fed-Ex and/or DHL depending on location. Reject and waste potatoes should be deeply buried and volunteers should be killed off in other crops before they become a source of infection. Guinea pigs and cats did not show any evidence of teratogenic or other developmental toxicity (Khera, 1987). The fungicide is xylem-mobile and can be used as drench, soil incorporation, dip or foliar spray.
The signs of toxicity include hypokinesia, lethargy, hunched posture, body tremors, clonic convulsions, nasal hemorrhages, piloerection, staggering gait, and ataxia. Recovery of propamocarb hydrochloride from wine spiked before dilution was in the range from 91 to 115%.
LC was performed with a mobile-phase gradient and detection was by electrospray mass spectrometry in a positive ionization mode. Cymoxanil is a systemic product with protectant and curative activity against Oomycetes. Such fungicides include PCNB, metalaxyl, triadimefon, ethazol, and propamocarb. Finch, G.P.F.
Granular materials and low-volatility liquid pesticides either are broadcast on the soil and then disked into the soil (Fig. Aluminium tris-O-ethylphosphonate (fosethyl-Al), known as Aliette, is a systemic organic phosphate compound used to control diseases caused by Peronosporales. The presence of plant parasitic nematodes, by themselves, is not sufficient justification for application of nematicides. Proportion of TBZ-resistant isolates varied greatly by species and origin sites. Propamocarb is nonirritating to the eyes or skin. Increases in enzyme activities and phenol and lignin contents associated with induced resistance mechanism were also observed in chitosan and -aminobutyric treated potatoes (Sun et al., 2008; Li et al., 2009b; Olivieri et al., 2009; Yin et al., 2010).
Multi-site mode of action prevents resistance problem. ), peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) and caraway essential oils were highly toxic against F. oxysporum and controlled very well the decay when applied on potato tubers as protective and therapeutic agents (Mahmoud et al., 2008). The malformations have been prevented by coadministration of thyroxine (Emmerling, 1978). With the increase concerns of the impacts of chemical fungicides on human health and the environment as well as resistance development, different chemical compounds have been tested for the control of dry rot. Locally absorbed fungicides, including chloroneb, iprodione, and vinclozolin, are absorbed into the leaf tissue and remain close to their point of entry.
Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), thyme (Thymus capitatus Hoff. Locally absorbed penetrant-type fungicides are represented by three fungicides, which control nine diseases, and the three systemic fungicides control two diseases, respectively. Highly soluble in water. This low in vitro toxicity has been interpreted as an indication that antifungal activity is indirect and host defence reactions are stimulated. Phosphoric acid is considered to be the active and systemic principle through disruption of phospolipid metabolism. Control of nuisance aquatic weeds in lakes and ponds associated with parks and golf courses are also subjected to herbicide treatment. Fungicides for Turfgrass Diseases.
jinhe Leakage out of the mycelium can be inhibited by the addition of sterols. Fungicides for treating seed tubers are also used to control dry rot (Table 3). Upwardly mobile penetrant fungicides include the benzanalides, benzimiazoles, sterol inhibitors (demethylation inhibiting), and strobilurins. 2000-2019 Advanced Turf Solutions, Inc. - All Rights Reserved. Fumigation of tubers with garlic (Allium sativum L.) essential oil decreased the severity of dry rot caused by F. solani (Bng, 2007). fungicide preventive scab downy It can seriously reduce yield by killing the foliage early; during periods of heavy rain the spores of the fungus can be washed into the soil and onto the tubers, so causing them to rot in the ground or during storage. Exposure to ETU at the critical stages of pregnancy produced malformations in rats, predominantly those of the CNS. Mycelial growth is more sensitive to cymoxanil than early growth phases, including the release of zoospores from sporangia and their germination. It induces sensitization in a MagnussonKligman maximization test. A common programme is to use, Hayes' Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (Third Edition), University of Massachusetts-Extension, 1999, Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (GCSAA), 1998, Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (1998), Penetrant fungicides are absorbed by the plant to provide their control. In addition, new growth, which is not covered, is susceptible to fungal attack. The fungicide inhibits nucleic acid and protein synthesis. ), and removal by mowing. They include gangrene, silver scurf, dry rot, skin spot and stem canker (Table6.2). From: Plant Pathology (Fifth Edition), 2005, M. Kilian, U. Steiner, in Encyclopedia of Rose Science, 2003. Broadleaf weeds are controlled predominantly using postemergence herbicides (e.g., Trimec mixtures of 2,4-D, dicamba, mecoprop, dicamba itself, and Confront mixtures of triclopyr plus clopyralid). Control of annual and perennial weeds in nonplaying areas on golf courses and for turfgrass replacement is accomplished using nonselective postemergent herbicides such as glyphosate. Emulsifiable concentrates of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill. imazalil, flutolanil, and pencycuron. (2002) demonstrated the biocidal activity of small peptides against TBZ-resistant F. sambucinum and their synergism with TBZ against TBZ-resistant and sensitive strains. Turf can become infested with annual and perennial grasses (not the planted cultivar) and broadleaf plants that are controlled by the use of various herbicides. bwi Highly volatile chemicals are applied to the soil with tractors dragging devices equipped with chisels (Figs. Fenamiphos is a restricted-use material that is a systemic nematicide effective against ecto- and endoparasitic, free-living, cyst-forming, and root-knot nematodes and is recommended for application with and without soil incorporation.
Odorless to faint aromatic odor. The developmental toxicity included malformations and embryo-fetotoxic effects at maternally toxic dose levels with EBDCs in rats (Ollinger et al., 2001). The mass spectrometry analyses were carried out by using electrospray ionization (ESI) source operating in the positive mode both for single quadrupole and for QIT mass analysers, operating in selected ion monitoring (SIM) and in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) modes, respectively. Bromoethane and rindite, chemicals used for breaking tuber dormancy, were reported to have no significant effect on dry rot development (Coleman and Murphy, 1990). It is necessary to reapply these types of fungicides every 514 days due to their environmental breakdown on the plant surface, removal due to wash-off (rain, dews, etc. These fungicides alter thyroid hormone levels and/or weights. The average recoveries were in the range between 70 and 110% for most of the compounds tested. Ethoprop is a nonsystemic, nonfumigant nematicide, which is also effective against soil-dwelling insects. TBZ was largely used until resistant strains to TBZ appeared in the late 1980s (Langerfeld, 1986; Tivoli et al., 1986b). coeruleum in vitro (Mecteau et al., 2002, 2008; Kolaei et al., 2012). Upwardly mobile penetrant fungicides include the benzanalides, benzimiazoles, sterol inhibitors (demethylation inhibiting), and strobilurins. Log Kow=<1.0. This group includes fosetyl-Al, metalaxyl, and, Multi-residue detection of pesticides in juice and fruit wine: A review of extraction and detection methods, reported a LC/MS method for the determination of, Economoul, Botitsi, Antoniou, and Tsipi (2009), Sagratini, Maes, Giardin, Damiani, and Pic (2007), Radui, Gruji, Vasiljevi, and Lauevi (2009), Hide et al., 1992; Kawchuk et al., 1994; Hanson et al., 1996; Platt, 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012, Hanson et al., 1996; Satyaprasad et al., 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012. With repeated ingestion, there is a possibility of cutaneous effects, alopecia and a risk of antithyroid effects, especially with maneb.
Thiophanate-methyl (a benzimidazole fungicide) seed tuber piece treatment is used in Canada to control the disease. Certainly for most golf courses and sports facilities, the application of pesticides is the accepted and required chemical control paradigm. Metiram (Leach and Nielsen, 1975), mancozeb alone (Leach and Nielsen, 1975; Cwalina-Ambroziak and Czajka, 2006) or in combination with thiophanate-methyl or flutolanil (Wharton et al., 2007) were also reported effective. Proplantfungicide prevents and cures many Pythium diseases, including damping-off, cottony blight, grease spot and root rot. The carbamic acid class of fungicides includes dithiocarbamates (ferbam, thiram, ziram, Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, Sittig's Handbook of Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals (Second Edition), Lockhart & Wisemans Crop Husbandry Including Grassland (Ninth Edition), conditions which, when they occur, are known as Blight Periods. They represent a group of highly active and selective fungicides. In some cases, foliar diseases (e.g., downy mildews and rusts) can be controlled by incorporating the fungicide (e.g., metalaxyl, triadimenol) into the fertilizer and applying them together before planting. The compounds inhibit spore germination, but less strongly than mycelia development. The dicarboximides are classed among the contact fungicides which are generally applied prophylactically. Of the major used fungicides on turf, the upwardly mobile penetrant types are the most chemically diverse (eight fungicides) and control the most fungal diseases (17 fungal diseases). P.K. Moreover clove (Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill & Perry) and palmarose (Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) In general, other species of Fusarium, such as F. solani, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. equiseti, F. sporotrichioides, F. acuminatum, F. avenaceum, were more sensitive to TBZ and very few isolates showed resistance (Hanson et al., 1996; Satyaprasad et al., 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012).